Fig. 3

DOPAL reported neurotoxic molecular mechanisms. DOPAL build-up in SNpc dopaminergic neurons triggers multiple neurotoxic mechanisms: a alteration of neuronal proteostasis, in terms of protein aggregation [34, 36, 38, 41, 44], competition with functional post-translational modifications (PTMs, i.e. ubiquitination, SUMOylation, acetylation) and accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins [42, 45]; b enzyme inhibition (PDB: 4i1f, in the figure) [46,47,48]; c indirect effects, which imply oxidative stress [39], mitochondrial dysfunction [17, 49,50,51], activation of necrotic and apoptotic pathways [23, 24, 33]