Fig. 7
Oligomers induce cytotoxic effects that can be monitored over time. a In healthy cells, over short durations (minutes up to one hour), toxic oligomers exhibit extensive membrane binding, induce rapid influx of Ca2+ ions, and then reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation [321]. Longer incubations (hours to days) induce elevated caspase-3 levels, metabolic dysfunction, and ultimately death of the cell [331]. Created with biorender.com. b Examples of observable impacts of Aβ42 and ⍺-synuclein oligomer treatment for short durations to SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells [257, 332]. Membrane binding: oligomers (green chancel) and membranes (red channel) [257]. ROS production (green). Intracellular calcium ions (green). c Examples of observable impacts of HypF-N oligomer treatment for longer durations (hours to days) to SH-SY5Y cells, including caspase-3 production (green) [300] and metabolic defects as assessed using the MTT assay for Aβ40, Aβ42, ⍺-synuclein, and HypF-N oligomers [257, 258, 332]. Panels were adapted from Limbocker et. al [257], Zampagni et.al [300], Perni et. al [332], and Limbocker et. al [258]