Fig. 3

a Experimental characterization of the device cooling performance in “open-loop” configuration, for different cooling power applied to the thermoelectric module starting from t = 0 and an external temperature of 24 °C (temperature sensor positioned at the chip center). b Measured equilibrium temperature T _eq at the chip center (x = y = 0) for different constant cooling power and starting from an external temperature T _ext  = 24 °C. N = 3, errors are SD. c Spatial temperature distribution across the chip area, both measured experimentally and simulated via FEM